The History of the Transistor

The transistor is an influential little invention that changed the course of history in a big way for computers and all electronics. History of Computers You can look at the computer as being made of many different inventions or components. We can name four key inventions that made a huge impact on computers. An impact large enough that they can be referred to as a generation of change. The first generation of computers depended upon the invention of vacuum tubes; for the second generation it was transistors; for the third, it was the integrated circuit; and the fourth generation of computers came about after the invention of the microprocessor. The Impact of Transistors Transistors transformed the world of electronics and had a huge impact on computer design. Transistors made of semiconductors replaced tubes in the construction of computers. By replacing bulky and unreliable vacuum tubes with transistors, computers could now perform the same functions, using less power and space. Before transistors, digital circuits were composed of vacuum tubes. The story of ENIAC computer speaks volumes about the disadvantages of vacuum tubes in computers. A transistor is a device composed of semiconductor materials (germanium and silicon) that can both conduct and insulate Transistors switch and modulate electronic current. The transistor was the first device designed to act as both a transmitter, converting sound waves into electronic waves, and resistor, controlling electronic current. The name transistor comes from the trans of transmitter and sistor of resistor. The Transistor Inventors John Bardeen, William Shockley, and Walter Brattain were all scientists at the Bell Telephone Laboratories in Murray Hill, New Jersey. They were researching the behavior of germanium crystals as semiconductors in an attempt to replace vacuum tubes as mechanical relays in telecommunications. The vacuum tube, used to amplify music and voice, made long-distance calling practical, but the tubes consumed power, created heat and burned out rapidly, requiring high maintenance. The teams research was about to come to a fruitless end when the last attempt to try a purer substance as a contact point lead to the invention of the first point-contact transistor amplifier. Walter Brattain and John Bardeen were the ones who built the point-contact transistor, made of two gold foil contacts sitting on a germanium crystal. When electric current is applied to one contact, the germanium boosts the strength of the current flowing through the other contact. William Shockley improved upon their work creating a junction transistor with sandwiches of N- and P-type germanium. In 1956, the team received the Nobel Prize in Physics for the invention of the transistor. In 1952, the junction transistor was first used in a commercial product, a Sonotone hearing aid. In 1954, the first transistor radio, the Regency TR1 was manufactured. John Bardeen and Walter Brattain took out a patent for their transistor. William Shockley applied for a patent for the transistor effect and a transistor amplifier.

Juvenile Detention A Second Chance Towards Life

Saurabh Dekate Professor Patricia Loughrey English 301B 23rd September 2014 Juvenile Detention, a second chance towards life The juvenile court established in Chicago in 1899 defines a juvenile as a youth who is not old enough to be held responsible for his crimes. Every state has a standard threshold for age, which classifies the person as an adult or minor. Accordingly, they are prosecuted in the adult or juvenile courts as per their age. United States have experienced an increase in its crime rate in the last few decades. The number of juvenile crimes has increased exponentially. Many of these juveniles are accused of hideous crimes such as murder and rape. But all the juvenile crime does not take place in the same circumstances. For such juveniles, who are basically unaware of their actions, can be reformed in rehabilitation centers. During the trial of Graham, who was accused of armed robbery. Attorney Roper V. Simmons argued that, â€Å"From a moral standpoint, it would be misguided to equate the failings of a minor with those of an adult, for a greater possibility exists that a minor’s chara cter deficiencies will be reformed.†. He believed that due to lack of sense of responsibility and maturity, the minors have a high probability of being vulnerable to bad influences. And he also believes that reforming the psychology of minors is more probable than as compared to that of adults. He wanted Graham to get one more chance to prove himself as a man who would be honest andShow MoreRelated No Prison Time for Juvenile Crime and Violence Essay882 Words   |  4 Pages No Prison Time for Juvenile Crime nbsp; Students are shooting up schools across the country. Kids as young as twelve and thirteen are being convicted of murdering their peers. Right here in Hanover, two teens have been charged with the murders of Dartmouth professors. Although juvenile crime across the country may not be on the rise, high publicity, headline-grabbing juvenile-perpetrated homicides certainly are. nbsp; Prosecutors, attempting to satiate public demand for justice, haveRead MoreCRJ 180 WEEK SEVEN Essay1560 Words   |  7 Pagesï » ¿ COMBATING JUVENILE DELINQUENCY GINA BUFFALOE CRJ 180/STRAYER UNIVERSITY DR. CLINTON MILLER 8/17/2014    COMBATING JUVENILE DELIQUENCY HILSBOROUGH COUNTY, FLORIDA Hillsborough County in the state of Florida initiated a program called the Juvenile Arrest Avoidance Program or JAAP in August of 2010. 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Essay- How Computers Benefit Businesses - 1140 Words

The business world of the 21st century is becoming more demanding and challenging as operations grew bigger and more complex with projects that need to be done in smaller time frames. There is very little room for even slight errors and mistakes; as such errors can cost businessmen millions of dollars. Therefore, reliable workforces are much needed to get projects done quickly as well as efficiently. This is why computer-aided tasks are becoming an increasingly popular trend nowadays. The first generation of computers dates back to as early as the 1940 s. The computers of that time however proved to be a hassle just to run and maintain it to be of any use to businesses of the times. It was very huge, extremely sluggish and slow but†¦show more content†¦Errors only occur if data or instructions itself that are being keyed into the computer contains error. This is very important for companies to avoid problems, because a slight error can be costly as mentioned earlier. A good example is when an accountant is doing hefty financial calculations, if there s even a slight mistake in the calculation; the whole account needs to be recalculated, which will take a lot of time. With the help of computers, such problems do not exist. Computers have the ability to store data in its storage media. This means previous transactions, client database and other form of business-related information can be stored electronically inside a computer for future reference. This is very useful as it replaces the obsolete method of keeping records in files and papers inside cabinets, in a more secure manner where these data can be protected with a password. Not only that, computers have the ability to search for specific file, record or other form of information using the integrated search tool. This process is much faster compared to the process of searching for files in cabinets manually, saving invaluable time. Modern computers are very reliable and have low failure rate. 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Memorandum Civil Legal Aid System Ireland

Question: Discuss about the Memorandumfor Civil Legal Aid System Ireland. Answer: Memorandum To: Mr. Dan (Client) From: Lawyer Date: January 12, 2017 File no: 200045-3 Re: Civil legal Aid System in Ireland for playing of loud music by the neighbors causing annoyance to Mr.Dan. Facts : An individual is seeking advice while taking action in a civil litigation matter against his neighbors who played loud music and cause nuisance all night causing disturbance to others. Our client is Mr. Dan who is seeking legal aid against his neighbors who created nuisance playing loud music all night. Mr. Dan, our client is the originator of the lawsuit, plaintiff. Issue: Mr. Dan wants to file a civil litigation matter as against his neighbours for playing loud music all night and creating a nuisance. What are the legal aid services available to him? Discussion: Lawsuit is taken in action in case where there is a nuisance. Action is taken under law of nuisance. Lawsuits, which invoke law of nuisance, involve neighbors suing their neighbors for creating a nuisance, which causes harm or disturbance to the neighbors. When the plaintiff brings a n action against his neighbor he clearly clarifies that the neighbor should stop interfering with his enjoyment and thus the action must be stopped. Nuisance is categorized under two heads: private nuisance and public nuisance.[1] In our case, it is a public nuisance, which caused disturbance to Mr. Dan. Public nuisance is anything that causes damage to the health, welfare, safety and comfort of the public.[2] The main regulation that deals with noise pollution comes under the Environmental Protection Ac t, 1992(EPA).[3] There are vast variances of noise pollution in Ireland and which the EPA regulates. Under the law, noise pollution means various things, like noise: which is regarded to be a nuisance, that causes a damage to the property, causes harm to human health, affects the comfort of the public in general, which harms the environment. The Department of the Environmental, Community and Local Government in 1994 looked into the matter of noise pollution and made regulations under the EPA, 1992( Noise) Regulations 1994.[4] Under these regulations, a person can make a complaint to a District Court seeking Order to deal with noise, which causes disturbance or annoyance to him. Under the second stage debate in Dail, a Private Members Bill was passed on November 2006, which clearly states the noise, which causes disturbance, or annoyance to neighbors is regarded to be anti-social kind of noise pollution.[5] Section 108 of the EPA, 1992 states that noise that is so loud as to create disturbance or continuing annoyance to the neighbors is classified as nuisance and an action can be brought against it. Ireland does not set out the maximum level of noise in its legislation. The complaints looked into by the District Court. The District Court hears both the sides and then gives his decision telling the person creating the nuis ance to lower the sound to certain level.[6] As mentioned under the law when a a complaint brought against the neighbor is unsuccessful then the case is brought to the District Court. The Clerk in the District Court advices how to make a complaint in relation to noise. The clerk provides an application form called a Notice of Intention to make a complaint. The applicable charge is 22, which is served to the neighbor.[7] In the case of Kennaway v Thompson[1981] QB 88Court of Appeal , the defendant in this case is a member of the Cotswold Motor Boat Racing Club who carried out motor boat racing. Since 1960s the boat racing took place.[8] The claimant moved into house built on a land, which is 390 yards from the motor racing clubs starting line. The clubs water was often used for national and international races, which increased over the period. The claimant bought an action against the club against nuisance of noise and disturbance caused by the club. The claimant was successful in her claims and awarded damages by the Court from the Motor Racing club. However, the judge refused to give injunction.[9] Christie v Davey(1893) 1 Ch 316, the claimant in this case was a music teacher who gave private lessons of music at her home. She also taught music to her family members and loved playing loud music. She stayed in a semi-attached house with the defendant. The defendant raised a complaint against the claimant for noise on many occasions and banged the walls of the claimant. The defendants action regarded as malice by the Court and did not amount to nuisance. The Court gave injunction to stop the acts of the defendant.[10] In Murdoch Murdoch v Glacier Metal Company Limited [1998] Env.L.R.732 it was held by the Court of Appeal that noise which is set up by the World Health Organization does not amount to actionable nuisance per se. It was not really the case that there was a customary law annoyance if rest in a house in a zone of blended uses was exasperates by clamor. In spite of the fact that the topic of rest unsettling influence was a critical matter to consider, it was important to consider the general circumstance.[11] In considering the measures of the normal individual and the character of the area when choosing whether the clamor was adequately genuine to add up to an aggravation, the trial judge had connected the correct test. The absence of objections by other nearby occupants, the nearness of a by-go in closeness to Murdoch home and proof from the neighborhood natural wellbeing officer that there was no statutory annoyance were applicable contemplations, and the judges choice would in this way be maintained.[12] Application: Public nuisance under the Act is defined as a nuisance, which cause unreasonable discomfort to the public in general. An act, which affects the well-being of the neighbors, regarded to be as nuisance. Under Section 108 of the EPA, 1992 defines the term public nuisance. The main elements has to public nuisance are; unreasonableness harm caused by the defendant, continuing the act of the nuisance over a period. Under Section 108 of the EPA, 1992 a noise that is loud enough to cause continuous and repeated harm or disturbance, or annoyance to a person who is residing in the nearby locality or to a person who uses the public place, such person or Agency can make a complaint against the person creating the nuisance.[13] The complaint is made to the District Court and the Court then can pass an order as against the person causing the nuisance to take measures to reduce the noise to a certain level. Such person must comply with such order. In order to overcome the damages the d efendant has to prove good defense that the noise he made wasnt unreasonable and he took enough care to cause any harm to the neighborhood. Remedies include damages and injunction to continue with such act and comply with the order of the Court. Public nuisance is termed as anything that causes harm to the safety, health and welfare of the public in general. When the rules laid down under the law is applied in the case of Mr. Dan, the client we see that he has faced reasonable harm by his neighbors while they played loud music in their premises.[14]The loud music played by his neighbors caused annoyance and nuisance, which affected the well-being and comfort of Mr.Dan. Again in the case of Kennaway v Thompson[1981] QB 88Court of Appeal the court held that the motor racing club is liable to pay damages for the noise caused by them in the nearby neighborhood. The noise caused by the motor racing club caused reasonable annoyance to the claimant. The claimant was liable to damages but i njunction was not put on the motor racing club. When we apply the scenario of this case in the case of Mr.Dan we can say that Mr.Dan is liable to get damages for the nuisance caused to him by the neighbors.[15] In the Christie v Daveythe claimant was not liable to get damages because the defendants act was regarded as malice and thus injunction was issued on the defendant. The noise caused did not cause annoyance to the neighbor.[16] Summary and Conclusion When read altogether and analyzed the effect of the rules laid down under the EPA and the case laws referred are as follows. Any person who does not abide by the rulings of the Court is guilty of an offence. The playing of loud music by the neighbors all night so the neighbors were liable to pay damages disturbed the client Mr. Dan. A compensatory damage is applied to the damage caused by the defendants nuisance. Punitive damages are charged when the damages caused is intentional. Research Trial Looked at The EPA at 40: An Historical Perspective By Andrews, Richard N. L Duke Environmental Law Policy Forum, Vol. 21, No. 2, Spring 2011 Found information laid down in Section 108 of the Environmental Protection Act, 1992. Westlaw Manupatra Hard copy readings Out of Bounds, out of Control: Regulatory Enforcement at the EPABy James V. DelongCato Institute, 2002 The EPA at 40: An Historical PerspectiveBy Andrews, Richard N. LDuke Environmental Law Policy Forum, Vol. 21, No. 2, Spring 2011 Public Policies for Environmental ProtectionBy Paul R. Portney; Robert N. StavinsResources for the Future, 2000 (2nd edition) Environmental Justice and the New Pluralism: The Challenge of Difference for EnvironmentalismBy David SchlosbergOxford University Press, 1999 Environmental Noise Pollution in the United States: Developing an Effective Public Health Response by-Monica S. Hammer, Tracy K. Swinburn, and Richard L. Neitzel Journals Noise pollution: non-auditory effects on healthby Stephen A Stansfeld ,Mark P Matheson Br Med Bull (2003) 68 (1): 243-257. Published01 December 2003 Civil legal Assistance- Social Issue Report.pdf Legal Databases Legal periodicals through IRLI legalperiodicals.org Court Services courts.ie Houses of the Oireachtas oireachtas.ie Europa europa.ie The Law Reform Commission www.lawreform.ie Irish current law statutes- Section 108 of the Environmental Protection Act 1992. Irish Reports Bishop, Charlotte. "Rule that proof of domestic violence for legal aid purposes must be less than 24 months old declared invalid."Journal of Social Welfare and Family Law38.3 (2016): 330-332. King, E. A., et al. "A combined assessment of air and noise pollution on the High Line, New York City."Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment42 (2016): 91-103. Books Angelo, Tony, Geoff McLay, and Bevan Marten. "Bill Atkin: Colleague, mentor, teacher, friend."Victoria University of Wellington Law Review46.3 (2015): 575. Austin, Graeme W. "Guts of a Torts Class, The."Victoria U. Wellington L. Rev.46 (2015): 769. Bugliarello, George, Ariel Alexandre, and John Barnes.The Impact of Noise Pollution: A Socio-Technological Introduction. Elsevier, 2014. Can, Arnaud, Gwenal Guillaume, and Benot Gauvreau. "Noise indicators to diagnose urban sound environments at multiple spatial scales."Acta Acustica united with Acustica101.5 (2015): 964-974. Charles Palmer, Robert. "Common law environmental protection: the future of private nuisance, Part II."International Journal of Law in the Built Environment6.1/2 (2014): 106-128. Cornford, Tom.Towards a public law of tort. Routledge, 2016 Stech, Radoslaw. "Carrot and Stick Approach: An Analysis of the UK Government's Proposals on Environmental Judicial Review, A."Envtl. L. Rev.15 (2013): 139. Vago, Steven.Law and society. Routledge, 2015. Votsi, Nefta-Eleftheria P., Athanasios S. Kallimanis, and Ioannis D. Pantis. "An environmental index of noise and light pollution at EU by spatial correlation of quiet and unlit areas."Environmental Pollution(2016). References Angelo, Tony, Geoff McLay, and Bevan Marten. "Bill Atkin: Colleague, mentor, teacher, friend."Victoria University of Wellington Law Review46.3 (2015): 575. Austin, Graeme W. "Guts of a Torts Class, The."Victoria U. Wellington L. Rev.46 (2015): 769. Bugliarello, George, Ariel Alexandre, and John Barnes.The Impact of Noise Pollution: A Socio-Technological Introduction. Elsevier, 2014. Can, Arnaud, Gwenal Guillaume, and Benot Gauvreau. "Noise indicators to diagnose urban sound environments at multiple spatial scales."Acta Acustica united with Acustica101.5 (2015): 964-974. Charles Palmer, Robert. "Common law environmental protection: the future of private nuisance, Part II."International Journal of Law in the Built Environment6.1/2 (2014): 106-128. Cornford, Tom.Towards a public law of tort. Routledge, 2016. Davis, Rickie. "Long-term noise exposures: A brief review."Hearing Research(2016). Gillespie, Alisdair.The English legal system. Oxford University Press, 2013. Lee, Maria. "The Intersection between Environmental Law and Tort Law."Glicksman and Paddock, Environmental Decision Making (Edward Elgar), Forthcoming(2015). Morrow, Karen. "II. 3 The courts, nuisance and environmental pollutiona matter of will?."Decision Making in Environmental Law(2016): 52. Murphy, Enda, and Eoin King.Environmental Noise Pollution: Noise Mapping, Public Health, and Policy. Newnes, 2014. Palmer, Robert Charles. "Common law environmental protection: the future of private nuisance, Part II."International Journal of Law in the Built Environment6.1/2 (2014): 106. Portney, Paul R., ed.Public policies for environmental protection. Routledge, 2016. Stech, Radoslaw. "Carrot and Stick Approach: An Analysis of the UK Government's Proposals on Environmental Judicial Review, A."Envtl. L. Rev.15 (2013): 139. Vago, Steven.Law and society. Routledge, 2015. Votsi, Nefta-Eleftheria P., Athanasios S. Kallimanis, and Ioannis D. Pantis. "An environmental index of noise and light pollution at EU by spatial correlation of quiet and unlit areas."Environmental Pollution(2016).